Langsung ke konten utama

Is Financial Status a Continuous Varibale

  • Journal List
  • Global Spine J
  • v.8(3); 2018 May
  • PMC5958489

Global Spine J. 2018 May; 8(3): 311–313.

The Anatomy of Data

Joseph R. Dettori

1Spectrum Research, Inc, Tacoma, WA, USA

Daniel C. Norvell

1Spectrum Research, Inc, Tacoma, WA, USA

"Data! Data! Data! I can't make bricks without clay."

—Sherlock Holmes, in Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventure of the Copper Beeches

Data is necessary to draw logical inferences in clinical research. Understanding the anatomy of data is essential if one is to obtain the correct interpretation of the data collected. The purposes of this article are to review the types of data encountered in clinical research, how they are used, and why it is important to know the differences among them.

Types of Data

Variables are usually labeled as qualitative (categorical) or quantitative. A qualitative variable, not to be confused with qualitative research,* 1 is one in which the variable categories are not described as numbers but instead by verbal groupings. On the other hand, quantitative variables are those in which the variables are measured in some numerical unit (Figure 1).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.  Object name is 10.1177_2192568217746998-fig1.jpg

Qualitative Data

Qualitative or categorical data are counts of the number of participants or observations in each category. This data is often described with percentages or other ratios (eg, risks). Categorical data can fall into 2 classifications: nominal or ordinal. Nominal variables have 2 or more categories that have "names" (Latin nominalis, meaning pertaining to names), not numerical values. Additionally, they have no natural or intrinsic order to them. Examples of a nominal variable are sex (male or female), marital status (single, married, or divorced) and cause of spinal cord injury (motor vehicle accident, fall, or gunshot). Nominal variables can also include those that are noted to be either present or absent. When data variables have only 2 possible categories, they are often referred to as binary or dichotomous data. Examples of dichotomous presence/absence data include smoking status (yes or no), litigation pending (yes or no), and the presence of osteoporosis (yes or no).

Ordinal data is similar to nominal data except that, with ordinal data, there are categories that can be placed in distinct order or hierarchy (eg, category A is more or less severe than category B). This is illustrated with the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) classification where impairment is progressively greater starting with ASIA grade E (normal) and finishing with ASIA grade A (no sensory or motor function). One common mistake regarding ordinal data occurs when one assumes that the differences between adjacent categories are the same. In our example of the ASIA classification system, the difference between ASIA grades A and B may not be the same as between ASIA grades B and C, particularly with regard to how well a baseline ASIA grade predicts future function. Table 1 illustrates how categorical data is often displayed when comparing 2 interventions (early vs late surgery).

Table 1.

Illustration of How to Display Categorical Data Comparing 2 Interventions.

Early (n = 75), % (n) Late (n = 80), % (n)
Male 42 (32) 39 (31)
Smokers 28 (21) 31 (25)
Cause of injury
 Vehicle accident 42 (32) 44 (35)
 Fall 38 (28) 42 (34)
 Gunshot wound 13 (10) 9 (7)
 Other 7 (5) 5 (4)
ASIA classification
 A 6 (5) 5 (4)
 B 18 (14) 24 (19)
 C 39 (29) 38 (30)
 D 34 (25) 29 (23)
 E 3 (2) 4 (3)

Quantitative Data

There are 2 types of quantitative or numeric data: discrete and continuous. As a general rule, counts are discrete and measurements are continuous. Discrete data are counts that cannot be made more precise. Typically, this involves integers. An example would be the number of children in a family. This data is discrete because individuals are whole indivisible entities. There are not 1.7 or 2.3 children in a family. Another example is the prior number of surgeries a patient has undergone for chronic low back pain.

Continuous data, on the other hand, can be divided into finer and finer levels. When graphed, they form a distribution of values along a continuum. Distributions that form a bell-shaped curve are said to be approximately normally distributed, while all other distributions are nonnormally distributed. Approximate normal distributions should be accompanied by a mean and standard deviation (SD), while nonnormal distributions are better described by a median and interquartile range (IQR). Mean and median measures indicate where on the continuum the data tends to cluster. The SD or IQR describe the spread or variability of the data over the continuum, respectively. Examples of continuous data include a patient's height and weight, range of spinal motion, or lumbar bone mineral density. Quantitative data is often summarized in a table such as Table 2 comparing 2 treatments (surgery vs conservative care) in patients with cervical myelopathy.

Table 2.

Illustration of How to Display Continuous Data Comparing 2 Interventions.

Surgery (n = 75), Mean ± SD Conservative (n = 80), Mean ± SD
Age (years) 54.5 ± 9.4 51.9 ± 9.9
Height (cm) 175.0 ± 9.8 176.5 ± 9.9
Weight (kg) 75.0 ± 13.0 75.4 ± 15.5
Duration of disease (years) 2.3 ± 0.8 1.8 ± 0.7
Trunk flexion (deg) 102 ± 24.3 115 ± 29.7

A Relationship

Sometimes continuous data can be converted to categorical data to assist in the clinical interpretation. An example can be found in the low back pain outcomes score (LBOS). 2 The LBOS is divided into 13 subscales ranging from current pain to leisure activity. The total score is based on a 75-point scale. Since a person could receive a score between 0 and 75 points, this score can be thought of as a continuous outcome. On the other hand, the authors of the score have also divided it into 4 potential outcome categories:

  • Excellent: >65

  • Good: 50-64

  • Fair: 30-49

  • Poor: 0-29

These arbitrary divisions create an ordinal categorical variable (ie, there is an order or hierarchy). Furthermore, it is not uncommon for authors to take categorical scores like these and divide them into "Good" and "Poor" outcomes (eg, <50 = Poor, ≥50 = Good) making them dichotomous or binary. Dichotomous outcomes are easier to work with in an analysis, since they allow for the calculation of risks and risk ratios. However, care must be taken to justify such arbitrary divisions. There is often a trade-off between clinical and statistical reasoning to form appropriate categories. Ideally, for most variables, cut points should be set a priori and not based primarily on a look at the data to determine what may seem most advantageous for the hypothesis to be tested.

Why Does It Matter Whether a Variable Is Qualitative or Quantitative?

Understanding the data type assists in determining the type of statistical analysis used. As we have seen, descriptive statistical analyses assume that the variables have specific levels of measurement. Results from nominal and ordinal data are presented using frequency distributions. Results from discrete and continuous data are presented using measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and dispersion (SD, standard error, IQR). In hypothesis testing, the selection of the statistical test begins with determining the type of data used. Once that is done, other questions can easily lead a researcher to the right statistical test.

Choosing the best way to visually display data also begins with understanding data types. Nominal data can be displayed as a pie chart, column or bar chart, or stacked column or bar chart. Ordinal data is best shown as a column or bar chart while discrete and continuous data are best represented as a bar chart, histogram, line graph, or scatterplot.

Summary

  • A qualitative variable, also called categorical, is one in which the variable categories are not described as numbers but instead by verbal groupings. There are two classifications of categorical data: nominal and ordinal.

  • Nominal variables have "names," not numerical values.

  • Ordinal data is similar to nominal data except that, with ordinal data, there are categories which can be placed in distinct order or hierarchy (eg, category A is less severe than category B).

  • Quantitative variables are those in which the variables are measured in some numerical unit.

  • There are 2 types of quantitative data: discrete and continuous.

  • Counts are discrete, measurements are continuous.

  • Continuous data can be converted to categorical to assist in the clinical interpretation.

  • Understanding the anatomy of data assists in determining the type of statistical analysis needed and the best way to visually display the data.

Notes

*Qualitative research is research where the data is not in the form of numbers. It is primarily exploratory and seeks to understand underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations of people. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques such as focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. For an overview, see Grossoehme (2014).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Analytic support for this work was provided by Spectrum Research, Inc. with funding from AOSpine.

References

2. Greenough CG, Fraser RD. Assessment of outcome in patients with low-back pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1992;17:36–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]


Articles from Global Spine Journal are provided here courtesy of SAGE Publications


poselffunk1.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5958489/

Komentar




banner



Popular Posts

Играть Раскраски С Цифрами : Раскраски с цифрами | Дошкольные учебные мероприятия ... : Выбирайте любую, она разделится на квадратики с числами и вы, согласно цифрам нанесёте краски, нажимая на панель внизу экрана.

Играть Раскраски С Цифрами : Раскраски с цифрами | Дошкольные учебные мероприятия ... : Выбирайте любую, она разделится на квадратики с числами и вы, согласно цифрам нанесёте краски, нажимая на панель внизу экрана. . Все детали картинки пронумерованы цифрами от 1 до 6. Играйте в лучшие игры раскраски онлайн на igrixl. Выбирайте любую, она разделится на квадратики с числами и вы, согласно цифрам нанесёте краски, нажимая на панель внизу экрана. Перед вами будет игровое поле, где вашему ребёнку предложат решить маленькую задачку, а ответ расскажет в какой цвет, нужно раскрасить тот или другой кусочек поля. Как правило, предпочитают играть за компьютером или смотреть телевизор выбрав один из шести цветных карандашей, ребёнок должен тыкать в отмеченные цифрами области. Иногда указывается какой конкретно цвет должен быть, но в основном можно закрашивать любым. Подыскиваете детскую математическую раскраску с примерами в пределах 10? Пиксельная онлайн игра раскраска рисунков

Sample Resume For University Application - Resume For Scholarship Application In 2021 Template Examples : Preparing your resume, also available through the bellevue university career services center.

Sample Resume For University Application - Resume For Scholarship Application In 2021 Template Examples : Preparing your resume, also available through the bellevue university career services center. . Most university students apply for a variety of positions that require different skill sets. With first class honors in biological science. Once you're in college, you can update and use the same resume to apply for internships and jobs for the next phase of your career. The cover letter written specifically to apply for that posting to show how the candidate's skills, education, and experience are a match for the role or company, and. Colleges aren't going to expect you to have a lot of professional experience, let alone in the field you hope to pursue, so don't stress if your work. Curious and dedicated recent graduate with three years' experience as a laboratory assistant and. Here are some links to sample resumes for ms applications. Crafting a

Lady Finger Banana Recipes / Lady Finger Banana Trees | Cherry smoothie, Banana ... - The best ladyfinger bananas recipes on yummly | chestnut tiramisu, tiramisu with guimauve teddy bears, lemon and limoncello tiramisu.

Lady Finger Banana Recipes / Lady Finger Banana Trees | Cherry smoothie, Banana ... - The best ladyfinger bananas recipes on yummly | chestnut tiramisu, tiramisu with guimauve teddy bears, lemon and limoncello tiramisu. . Lady finger bananas (also known as sugar bananas, fig bananas, or date bananas) are diploid cultivars of musa acuminata. Mashed bananas combined with flour and other ingredients to make a batter and then fried until golden brown. This is a simple, easy and tasty recipe of ladies finger fry made in north indian style. Red banana food lady finger banana latundan banana, fruits et lxe9gumes, grass, plant stem png. The best ladyfinger bananas recipes on yummly | chestnut tiramisu, tiramisu with guimauve teddy bears. The best ladyfinger bananas recipes on yummly | chestnut tiramisu, tiramisu with guimauve teddy bears, lemon and limoncello tiramisu. Not only are these banana bread muffins like cupcakes, but they're ready, start to finish, in just half

18563.L53.200 Jepang / 18563 L53 200 Japanese Kumpulan Bokeh 1111 90 L50 204 18563 L53 200 Japanese Full Video Archives Thefilosofi Com Brusselsproutsbin : Namun seiring nya waktu kode ip nya memang selalu ada saja yang terbaru.

18563.L53.200 Jepang / 18563 L53 200 Japanese Kumpulan Bokeh 1111 90 L50 204 18563 L53 200 Japanese Full Video Archives Thefilosofi Com Brusselsproutsbin : Namun seiring nya waktu kode ip nya memang selalu ada saja yang terbaru. . 18563.l53.200 japanese adalah sebuah kode ip adress yang di ciptakan oleh japanese atau yang sering di kenal dengan negara jepang, ini merupakan maka tidak herang user. Selain 18563.l53.200 japanese admin juga akan membahas 185.63.l50.200 jepang dan 18563.253.200 keoada user online yang penasaran dengan kueri tersebut. 18563.l53.200 jepang 111.90 l50 204 bisa di katakan sebuah kueri yang sangat populer dalam predaran search google. Pembahasan kata kunci tersebut tidak akan pernah berakhir mengingat banyaknya pencarian yang berhubungan dengan 185.63.153.200 bahasa jepang. Buat kalian yang masih belum paham dengan arti angka tersebut yang. Di sini saya akan kembali ke video. Karena google merupakan salah satu media informasi yang sangat digem

Examples Of Methodology For Thesis : Dissertation Methodology Example London School Of Economics Business Plan

Examples Of Methodology For Thesis : Dissertation Methodology Example London School Of Economics Business Plan . Quantitative research methodology sample thesis. A sample research paper which you can easily search over the internet, allows you to identify the key parts of a. The methodology or methods section explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research. Research methodology in this chapter, i discuss the research design, area of study, population, sample of the population, sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of the questionnaire, administration of the instrument and method of data analysis. Below is a dissertation methodology example to show you what information to include: Dr hilary engward grounded theory thesis methodology exemplar the purpose of this chapter is to build your case as to why grounded theory is best methodology to inquire into your research purpose. O

Mary Simon Governor General / 2oei0oap Xeuym / Prime minister justin trudeau made the announcement at the canadian museum of history in gatineau, que., tuesday and said queen elizabeth approved the appointment.

Mary Simon Governor General / 2oei0oap Xeuym / Prime minister justin trudeau made the announcement at the canadian museum of history in gatineau, que., tuesday and said queen elizabeth approved the appointment. . Photo by sean kilpatrick/the canadian press Trudeau picks mary simon as the 30th governor general of canada. Trudeau picks mary simon as the 30th governor general of canada. Dave chan/the globe and mail. Prime minister justin trudeau made the. Dave chan/the globe and mail. Inuk leader mary simon's appointment as canada's next governor general was met with division this week, after she revealed that she could not speak french, one of the country's two official. Governor general designate mary simon pose for a portrait july 6, 2021 at the canadian museum of history in gatineau, quebec. Ottawa—mary simon, an inuit leader and former canadian diplomat, has been named as canada's next governor general—the first indigenous person to serve in the rol

اطياز اغراء - صور اجسام بنات عربيات , اجسام مثالية للبنات العربية ...

اطياز اغراء - صور اجسام بنات عربيات , اجسام مثالية للبنات العربية ... . Смотрите видео اغراء اطياز ساخنه онлайн. جسمي هزيل او سمين جدا مقارنه باجسام الفحول. عبايات مفتوحة ، ملابس ضيقة ، أطياز ترجرج ، أذرع مكشوفة ، وجوه ملونة ، ضحكات متعالية عطورات مثيرة ~ و إذا سألتها ماذا تتمنين ، قالت : اغراء خاص جدا بتفقد الوعي من الحس. زي مانت شايف يامستشرف صار روتين عيري اليومي هو انو يمشي ويجلد اطياز حريمك تعودو من يشوفوني يرفعون اطيازهم تلقائي وبكل خضوع رتويت يافروخ احتراما لعيري الجلاد. على الرغم من تخطّي بعض النجمات العالميات سنّ الـ40، فإنهنّ يُبدين جمالاً وإشراقاً مميزين، بحيث يغيب عن بالنا أنهنّ في هذه السنّ المتقدّمة. Смотрите видео اغراء اطياز ساخنه онлайн. قضيبي صغير و لا استطيع اشباع زوجتي جنسيا. سكس عربي اطياز واكساس بزاز نيك جنس سخونة on wn network delivers the latest videos and editable pages for news & events, including entertainment, music, sports, science and more. جسمي هزيل او سمين جدا مقارنه باجسام الفحول.

Download Ets2 Android Tanpa Verifikasi / Download Ets2 Android Tanpa Verifikasi / Euro Truck ... - It is a game hack game by deden hiponda, an excellent euro truck driving simulator 2021 alternative to install on your smartphone.

Download Ets2 Android Tanpa Verifikasi / Download Ets2 Android Tanpa Verifikasi / Euro Truck ... - It is a game hack game by deden hiponda, an excellent euro truck driving simulator 2021 alternative to install on your smartphone. . Download ets2 android tanpa verifikasi : Transport your important cargo to unimaginable distances with your truck, become the king of the roads while traveling europe! It also works on any ios device available. Download ets 2 mobile apk untuk android. Tutorial singkat cara download euro truck simulator 2 di android tanpa verifikasi tutorial how to play ets2 on android without pc no verification 2020 download link. Euro truck simulator 2 for android is recently updated adventure hack application by deden hiponda, that can be used for various game purposes. In this tutorial i will explain how to download euro truck simulator 2 android and ios version. Penjabaran dari apktom ets 2 mobile. It is a game hack game by deden hiponda, an excellent

Model Robbie Teen Boys : Robbie By Patrick Lacsina For Male Model Scene

Model Robbie Teen Boys : Robbie By Patrick Lacsina For Male Model Scene . Robbie young cute boys, cute teenage boys, teen boys, boys summer outfits,. When the ghosts attack, he is one of the only teenagers not to be taken. Growing up in guyana & coming to the us as a teenager, tevin skeete of the @nphawks didn't start . Once dipper smartly opens the door and gets the kids inside, he's seen partying with the rest of them. Grady's robbie was always the coolest son. Danny dream, teenager mode, kids photography boys, young cute boys, . Portfolio current digitals available upon request. Back to models kids girls. Once dipper smartly opens the door and gets the kids inside, he's seen partying with the rest of them. He was the teen idol of the cast, his face having been featured on the cover of teen magazines since . Lmm Loving Male Models Robbie Beeser By Alex Evans Via Tumb

Juegos Realidad Virtual Android 2018 / Las Mejores Aplicaciones Gratis De Realidad Virtual Para Ios Y Android

Juegos Realidad Virtual Android 2018 / Las Mejores Aplicaciones Gratis De Realidad Virtual Para Ios Y Android . El link a ➤ ➤ descarga aplicaciones vr 2018. 79 soles con 90 centavos s/79,90. Pistola simulador juegos de realidad virtual ar gun 2020. 20 años después de que los tamagotchi . Quieres disfrutar al máximo de la mejor realidad virtual? Htc vive, oculus rift, android cardboard, playstation vr. Pistola joystick gun realidad virtual smartphone android g7. Aprovecha tus gafas virtuales con esta lista de juegos del 2021 para todos los dispositivos. Pistola simulador juegos de realidad virtual ar gun 2020. La resolución de este juego es es magnífica al compararse con otros juegos similares. Realidad Aumentada Wikipedia La Enciclopedia Libre from upload.wikimedia.org Quieres disfrutar al máximo de la mejor realidad virtual? Pistola joystick gun real
close